Electronic News: September 2013

2013-09-30

Business FujiFilm and Imec develop resist for sub-micron organic semiconductors.

2013/09/30

FujiFilm and Imec have developed a new photoresist technology for sub-micron processing of organic semiconductors.

Due to their lightness, flexibility, and the possibility to manufacture them in large area, research and development on organic semiconductors has intensified in recent years.

Organic semiconductors can be used in various applications such as organic solar cells, flexible displays, organic photodetectors and various other types of sensors.

Current methods for patterning organic semiconductors include shadow masking and inkjet printing. However, these patterning methods are not suitable for high-resolution patterning on large-size substrates.

Patterning based on photolithography would solve this issue. But photolithography is currently mainly adopted for patterning of silicon semiconductors.

When applying it to organic semiconductors using standard photoresists, the photoresist dissolves the organic semiconductor material during processing.

Fujifilm and imec have developed a new photoresist technology that enables submicron patterning on large-size substrates without damaging the organic semiconductor materials.

The new photoresist technology was developed by fusing the semiconductor processing technology of Fujifilm and imec, with Fujifilm’s synthetic-organic chemistry material design technology.

Since existing i-line photolithography equipment can be used, and investment for new equipment is unnecessary, the new technology contributes to a cost-effective production of high-resolution organic semiconductor devices.

For technical verification, Fujifilm and imec developed organic photo detectors (OPD) and organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) using the new photolithography technology, and tested their performance.

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Business Siemens cutting 15,000 jobs

2013/09/30

Siemens is to cut 4% of its workforce or 15,000 people. Half of the cuts have already been done. A third of the cuts are falling on Germany-based units.

At the end of July, the former Siemens CEO Peter Loescher was sacked after cutting forecasts five times and saying he would not make a 12% profit margin to which he had committed. Siemens’ shares fell 22% in Loescher’s six year tenure as CEO for which his pay-off was an estimated $100 million.

Siemens’ new CEO, Joe Kaeser, who was CFO for seven years before becoming CEO, is making the 4% cuts to try and meet the 12% profit margin.

The cuts will save $8.5 billion a year. Last year, Siemens’ profit margin was 9.5%.

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Novel technology to produce gasoline by a metabolically-engineered microorganism

For many decades, we have been relying on fossil resources to produce liquid fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and many industrial and consumer chemicals for daily use. However, increasing strains on natural resources as well as environmental issues including global warming have triggered a strong interest in developing sustainable ways to obtain fuels and chemicals.

Gasoline, the petroleum-derived product that is most widely used as a fuel for transportation, is a mixture of hydrocarbons, additives, and blending agents. The hydrocarbons, called alkanes, consist only of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Gasoline has a combination of straight-chain and branched-chain alkanes (hydrocarbons) consisted of 4-12 carbon atoms linked by direct carbon-carbon bonds.

Previously, through metabolic engineering of Escherichia coli (E. coli), there have been a few research results on the production of long-chain alkanes, which consist of 13-17 carbon atoms, suitable for replacing diesel. However, there has been no report on the microbial production of short-chain alkanes, a possible substitute for gasoline.

In the paper (entitled "Microbial Production of Short-chain Alkanes") published online in Nature on September 29, a Korean research team led by Distinguished Professor Sang Yup Lee of the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) reported, for the first time, the development of a novel strategy for microbial gasoline production through metabolic engineering of E. coli.

The research team engineered the fatty acid metabolism to provide the fatty acid derivatives that are shorter than normal intracellular fatty acid metabolites, and introduced a novel synthetic pathway for the biosynthesis of short-chain alkanes. This allowed the development of platform E. coli strain capable of producing gasoline for the first time. Furthermore, this platform strain, if desired, can be modified to produce other products such as short-chain fatty esters and short-chain fatty alcohols.

In this paper, the Korean researchers described detailed strategies for 1) screening of enzymes associated with the production of fatty acids, 2) engineering of enzymes and fatty acid biosynthetic pathways to concentrate carbon flux towards the short-chain fatty acid production, and 3) converting short-chain fatty acids to their corresponding alkanes (gasoline) by introducing a novel synthetic pathway and optimization of culture conditions. Furthermore, the research team showed the possibility of producing fatty esters and alcohols by introducing responsible enzymes into the same platform strain.

Professor Sang Yup Lee said, "It is only the beginning of the work towards sustainable production of gasoline. The titre is rather low due to the low metabolic flux towards the formation of short-chain fatty acids and their derivatives. We are currently working on increasing the titre, yield and productivity of bio-gasoline. Nonetheless, we are pleased to report, for the first time, the production of gasoline through the metabolic engineering of E. coli, which we hope will serve as a basis for the metabolic engineering of microorganisms to produce fuels and chemicals from renewable resources."

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2013-09-29

iOS世界中，苹果Macintosh电脑的未来会怎样？

苹果出售Macintosh电脑已经30年了，在过去6年中，个人电脑业务远远没有后PC时代的移动设备更受欢迎，那么Macintosh电脑的未来会怎样呢?

2013财年，Mac业务不理想

去年假日季节，也就是2013 Q1季度前的6年半，苹果Mac销售一直远超全球PC市场的增长速度。在2012年，PC销售开始戏剧性的缩减，这是2001年网络泡沫后的第一次。苹果一直逆势而上，直到2012年12月，Mac销量开始出现下滑。苹果称Mac销售从2011年的520万下降至去年12月的520万是因为该季度少一周，而且全新iMac的供应非常吃紧。苹果CEO Tim Cook称笔记本销量很正常。

除了iMac供应吃紧，苹果也没有发布全新Mac Pro。在去年第四季度，苹果不得不大幅降低库存。虽然Mac销量比去年同期降低22%，但营收只降低了16%。不过，Mac销量今年三月再次降低。这意味着苹果Mac业务正在与PC行业一起下滑。事实上，PC行业下滑的更早，2012年总体电脑销量降低了6.4%，2013年下滑速度更快，达到了13.9%。

每个人都知道Mac业务为何下滑，主要是因为iPad和各种平板电脑的崛起。数据显示，iPad正在不断蚕食PC销售，而山寨平板电脑则在侵占上网本市场。

苹果应该全新投入移动业务么?

iPad、iPhone和iPod发布前，就有人预测苹果应该放弃Macintosh。今年夏季，在WWDC大会上，苹果强调Mac用户群上涨至7200万，比5年前增加了100%。相同时间内，PC市场只增加了18%;甚至两年前就停止了增长。OS X Mountain Lion发布有hi你按之后，销量为2900万。上周发布的iOS 7则高达4亿，不过iOS 7是免费供应的，而OS X则是付费升级，OS X Mountain Lion为苹果带来8.4亿美元营收。

微软去年第四季度来自Windows的营收为60亿美元，不过苹果大部分收入来自硬件，去年第一季度Mac硬件带来55亿美元营收。苹果来自Mac平台的收入与微软Windows的营收持平。区别就是苹果Mac平台并不是苹果唯一的平台，也不是最大、利润最高的平台。

苹果应该融合iOS和OS X么?

那些无法理解的用户因为不了解苹果的战略，根据有限的事实做出推论。其中最著名的想法就是iOS和OS X将会融合，两款系统之间的技术差别还是非常大的。有趣的是没有人曾建议微软应该将Windows XP和Windows Mobile融合，这两款平台完全不同，除了名称，也没人建议微软应该将Windows 7/8与Windows Phone 7/7融合，因为PC平台与移动平台之间的app开发策略完全不同。

将移动平台和桌面平台融合肯定会非常怪异，苹果曾表示用户希望iOS和OS X能更好的协作，而不是融合。在即将发布的OS X Mavericks中，苹果加入了iOS风格的地图和iBooks。相信未来几年内，iOS设备和Mac平台的设计上的差异还是不允许两款系统融合

苹果Mac平台的投资

苹果一直在为Mac开发技术，而不是选择融合。去年发布的Mac开始支持Thunderbolt、USB 3.0、Fusion Drive混合硬盘。今年发布的MacBook Air和iMac开始支持802.11ac千兆WiFi，这些技术都不适合移动设备。Thunderbolt基于英特尔x64架构，Fusion Drive混合硬盘使用机械硬盘，这两种技术可能永远不会出现在移动设备上，而苹果全新Lightning连接器似乎可以支持支持USB 3.0，不过目前A7芯片中还未发现相关支持。

移动设备如果需要支持USB 3.0，则需要非常快的内存，目前USB 2.0标准仍然快于任何硬盘。一些iOS设备选择了WiFi同步，这种同步方式也慢于USB 2.0。802.11ac千兆WiFi也非常快，目前iOS设备WiFi速度最快为150Mbps。

Mac Pro华丽回归

今年的WWDC上，苹果推出了全新设计的Mac Pro专业电脑。不过，这款电脑主要针对的是高端用户，并不适合普通消费者。Mac Pro和iMac会继续蚕食PC市场。今天，需求很简单的用户会选择iOS，开发者也更倾向于为iOS开发软件，而不是Windows Phone平台。

高端用户，比如网页、应用开发者、艺术家、音乐人和视频编辑则更喜欢Mac平台。Macintosh平台对于苹果仍然很重要，想要继续赶超微软Windows和谷歌Android，苹果需要更快的为iOS和OS X加入更多创新功能。

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Ruckus助美国甲骨文号夺得第34届美洲杯帆船赛冠军

美国甲骨文号选择Ruckus智能Wi-Fi用于帆船数据传输， Ruckus SmartMesh网络用于帆船与海岸间的网络连接，且用于室内高速WLAN。Ruckus向美国甲骨文号致敬!

美洲杯帆船赛创立于1851年，已经有162年的历史，是世界上最古老的赛事之一。美国甲骨文号帆船船体上安装了传感器，队员均配备了耐磨且具有Wi-Fi 功能的显示装置，Ruckus 智能 Wi-Fi技术则用于传输关键的遥测、风力及负载数据。快速获得这些数据，可以帮助队员迅速实时调整风帆的角度，提升水面行驶速度。通讯系统的配置非常精确，比赛时帆船收发的信息要遵循严格的通信规则。

Ruckus助美国甲骨文号夺得第34届美洲杯帆船赛冠军

Wi-Fi系统也用于向美国甲骨文号的设计与制造团队传送帆船训练时收集到的数据，以便更快地做出赛后处理与评估。美国甲骨文号使用极高带宽的应用来收集评估测试中的性能数据，例如使用不同风帆配置时的帆船航行速度。

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新ipad设计原理图曝光下一代ipad边框更窄、更薄

最新出现的iPad 5设计原理图再次证明了这款产品要比上代产品的边框更窄。图片中显示下一代iPad的宽度为169.48毫米，比第四代iPad窄15毫米。图中还显示iPad 5的高度也要更小一些，iPad 4的高度为241.3毫米，iPad 5为240毫米。

此外，下一代iPad的厚度也会有所降低，从9.55毫米降至7.5毫米。图形中的iPad 5设计很多元素都来自去年发布的iPad mini。除了这些改变，iPad 5要比前代产品更轻，这意味着9.7寸全尺寸iPad的便携性会更好。当然，设备的主要元素，包括Home键，前置FaceTime摄像头、锁定键、耳机接口位置和麦克风位置都没有任何变化。

设计原理图的设计也符合今年泄露的很多疑似iPad 5组件，还有消息称iPad 5将增加深空灰和金色。传言称苹果将在今年10月举行发布会，推出第五代全尺寸iPad和Retina屏iPad mini。

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Accelerator on a chip: Technology could spawn new generations of smaller, less expensive devices for science, medicine

The achievement was reported today in Nature by a team including scientists from the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Stanford University.

"We still have a number of challenges before this technology becomes practical for real-world use, but eventually it would substantially reduce the size and cost of future high-energy particle colliders for exploring the world of fundamental particles and forces," said Joel England, the SLAC physicist who led the experiments. "It could also help enable compact accelerators and X-ray devices for security scanning, medical therapy and imaging, and research in biology and materials science."

Because it employs commercial lasers and low-cost, mass-production techniques, the researchers believe it will set the stage for new generations of "tabletop" accelerators.

At its full potential, the new "accelerator on a chip" could match the accelerating power of SLAC's 2-mile-long linear accelerator in just 100 feet, and deliver a million more electron pulses per second.

This initial demonstration achieved an acceleration gradient, or amount of energy gained per length, of 300 million electronvolts per meter. That's roughly 10 times the acceleration provided by the current SLAC linear accelerator.

"Our ultimate goal for this structure is 1 billion electronvolts per meter, and we're already one-third of the way in our first experiment," said Stanford Professor Robert Byer, the principal investigator for this research.

Today's accelerators use microwaves to boost the energy of electrons. Researchers have been looking for more economical alternatives, and this new technique, which uses ultrafast lasers to drive the accelerator, is a leading candidate.

Particles are generally accelerated in two stages. First they are boosted to nearly the speed of light. Then any additional acceleration increases their energy, but not their speed; this is the challenging part.

In the accelerator-on-a-chip experiments, electrons are first accelerated to near light-speed in a conventional accelerator. Then they are focused into a tiny, half-micron-high channel within a fused silica glass chip just half a millimeter long. The channel had been patterned with precisely spaced nanoscale ridges. Infrared laser light shining on the pattern generates electrical fields that interact with the electrons in the channel to boost their energy.

Turning the accelerator on a chip into a full-fledged tabletop accelerator will require a more compact way to get the electrons up to speed before they enter the device.

A collaborating research group in Germany, led by Peter Hommelhoff at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics, has been looking for such a solution. It simultaneously reports in Physical Review Letters its success in using a laser to accelerate lower-energy electrons.

Applications for these new particle accelerators would go well beyond particle physics research. Byer said laser accelerators could drive compact X-ray free-electron lasers, comparable to SLAC's Linac Coherent Light Source, that are all-purpose tools for a wide range of research.

Another possible application is small, portable X-ray sources to improve medical care for people injured in combat, as well as provide more affordable medical imaging for hospitals and laboratories. That's one of the goals of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency's (DARPA) Advanced X-Ray Integrated Sources (AXiS) program, which partially funded this research. Primary funding for this research is from the DOE's Office of Science.

Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V89qvy8whxY

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2013-09-28

Mucus useful in treating IBD, ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease

Sep. 26, 2013 — Imagine mucus -- which most people find unpleasant -- actually helping your body maintain its equilibrium, prevent inflammation, and reduce food allergy problems.

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Researchers from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai's Immunology Institute foresee a day when mucus could be manufactured and given to sick people to help them fight inflammation and increase immunity. For the first time ever, they report that mucus in the large intestine provides a valuable anti-inflammatory and self-regulating immune function. In fact, they propose that mucus may one day prove valuable in treating gut diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), Crohn's disease, as well as cancer.

The research is published online September 26 in the peer-reviewed journal Science.

"We asked ourselves whether dendritic cells in the gut could capture mucus, as well as bacteria and food antigens," said Andrea Cerutti, MD, PhD, the study's senior author and Professor in the Department of Medicine at the Immunology Institute at the Icahn School of Medicine. Dendritic cells are a type of immune cell found in the mucosa that launch an immune response. "We found that whenever mucus was present, it was stimulating the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines [regulatory proteins released by the cells of the immune system that act to regulate an immune response]," he added. The mucus prevented bacteria from inducing a damaging immune response.

Put another way, intestinal mucus not only acted as a barrier against bacteria and dietary toxins, but also stopped the onset of inflammatory reactions against these agents. "This important property of mucus was unknown until now," said Meimei Shan, MD, PhD, the study's lead author, and Assistant Professor in the Department of Medicine at the Immunology Institute at Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai.

In this research, mucus was isolated and analyzed from the intestine of healthy mice, from pigs, and from a human intestinal cell line. A number of techniques involving cellular immunology and molecular biology were used to demonstrate the anti-inflammatory properties of mucus. In addition, genetically engineered mice lacking intestinal mucus and mice with colitis were given mucus from healthy mice.

Under normal conditions, people release about one liter of mucus every single day. Mucus is normally secreted by mucosal tissues throughout the body, according to the researchers. The large intestine carries 80 percent of the body's immune cells. In inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders, such as Crohn's disease and inflammatory bowel disease, people may have alterations of intestinal mucus that impede the generation of a protective anti-inflammatory response.

"Future research will focus on further exploring the mechanisms to synthesize gut mucus or an equivalent drug-like compound for oral administration," said Dr. Shan. "We hope to artificially synthesize mucus or an equivalent compound for oral use."

Besides helping to treat inflammatory gut diseases, the researchers see ramifications in treating cancer. Dr. Cerutti explained: "Several aggressive tumors, such as colon, ovarian, and breast cancers produce mucous, including MUC2. Mucus produced by malignant cells may prevent protective immune responses against the malignant cells." As researchers gain a better understanding of the properties of mucus, it could also have a positive effect in treating tumors.

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New gut bacterium discovered in termite's digestion of wood

"In the termite gut, you have several hundred different species of microbes that live within a millimeter of one another. We know certain microbes are present in the gut, and we know microbes are responsible for certain functions, but until now, we didn't have a good way of knowing which microbes are doing what," says Jared Leadbetter, professor of environmental microbiology at Caltech, in whose laboratory much of the research was performed. He is also an author of a paper about the work published the week of September 16 in the online issue of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

Acetogenesis is the production of acetate (a source of nutrition for termites) from the carbon dioxide and hydrogen generated by gut protozoa as they break down decaying wood. In their study of "who is doing what and where," Leadbetter and his colleagues searched the entire pool of termite gut microbes to identify specific genes from organisms responsible for acetogenesis.

The researchers began by sifting through the microbes' RNA -- genetic information that can provide a snapshot of the genes active at a certain point in time. Using RNA from the total pool of termite gut microbes, they searched for actively transcribed formate dehydrogenase (FDH) genes, known to encode a protein necessary for acetogenesis. Next, using a method called multiplex microfluidic digital polymerase chain reaction (digital PCR), the researchers sequestered the previously unstudied individual microbes into tiny compartments to identify the actual microbial species carrying each of the FDH genes. Some of the FDH genes were found in types of bacteria known as spirochetes -- a previously predicted source of acetogenesis. Yet it appeared that these spirochetes alone could not account for all of the acetate produced in the termite gut.

Initially, the Caltech researchers were unable to identify the microorganism expressing the single most active FDH gene in the gut. However, the first authors on the study, Adam Rosenthal, a postdoctoral scholar in biology at Caltech, and Xinning Zhang (PhD '10, Environmental Science and Engineering), noticed that this gene was more abundant in the portion of the gut extract containing wood chunks and larger microbes, like protozoans. After analyzing the chunkier gut extract, they discovered that the single most active FDH gene was encoded by a previously unstudied species from a group of microbes known as the deltaproteobacteria. This was the first evidence that a substantial amount of acetate in the gut may be produced by a non-spirochete.

Because the genes from this deltaproteobacterium were found in the chunky particulate matter of the termite gut, the researchers thought that perhaps the newly identified microbe attaches to the surface of one of the chunks. To test this hypothesis, the researchers used a color-coded visualization method called hybridization chain reaction-fluorescent in situ hybridization, or HCR-FISH.

The technique -- developed in the laboratory of Niles Pierce, professor of applied and computational mathematics and bioengineering at Caltech, and a coauthor on the PNAS study -- allowed the researchers to simultaneously "paint" cells expressing both the active FDH gene and a gene identifying the deltoproteobacterium with different fluorescent colors simultaneously. "The microfluidics experiment suggested that the two colors should be expressed in the same location and in the same tiny cell," Leadbetter says. And, indeed, they were. "Through this approach, we were able to actually see where the new deltaproteobacterium resided. As it turns out, the cells live on the surface of a very particular hydrogen-producing protozoan."

This association between the two organisms makes sense based on what is known about the complex food web of the termite gut, Leadbetter says. "Here you have a large eukaryotic single cell -- a protozoan -- which is making hydrogen as it degrades wood, and you have these much smaller hydrogen-consuming deltaproteobacteria attached to its surface," he says. "So, this new acetogenic bacterium is snuggled up to its source of hydrogen just as close as it can get."

This intimate relationship, Leadbetter says, might never have been discovered relying on phylogenetic inference -- the standard method for matching a function to a specific organism. "Using phylogenetic inference, we say, 'We know a lot about this hypothetical organism's relatives, so without ever seeing the organism, we're going to make guesses about who it is related to," he says. "But with the techniques in this study, we found that our initial prediction was wrong. Importantly, we have been able to determine the specific organism responsible and a location of the mystery organism, both of which appear to be extremely important in the consumption of hydrogen and turning it into a product the insect can use." These results not only identify a new source for acetogenesis in the termite gut -- they also reveal the limitations of making predictions based exclusively on phylogenetic relationships.

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Human robot getting closer: iCub robot must learn from its experiences

Sep. 27, 2013 — A robot that feels, sees and, in particular, thinks and learns like us. It still seems like science fiction, but if it's up to University of Twente (UT) researcher Frank van der Velde, it won't be. In his work he wants to implement the cognitive process of the human brain in robots. The research should lead to the arrival of the latest version of the iCub robot in Twente. This human robot (humanoid) blurs the boundaries between robot and human.

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Decades of scientific research into cognitive psychology and the brain have given us knowledge about language, memory, motor skills and perception. We can now use that knowledge in robots, but Frank van der Velde's research goes even further. "The application of cognition in technical systems should also mean that the robot learns from its experiences and the actions it performs. A simple example: a robot that spills too much when pouring a cup of coffee can then learn how it should be done."

Possible first iCub in the Netherlands

The arrival of the iCub robot at the University of Twente should signify the next step in this research. Van der Velde submitted an application together with other UT researchers Stefano Stramigioli, Vanessa Evers, Dirk Heylen and Richard van Wezel, all active in the robotics and cognitive research. At the moment, twenty European laboratories have an iCub, which was developed in Italy (thanks to a European FP7 grant for the IIT). The Netherlands is still missing from the list. Moreover, a newer version is currently being developed, with for example haptic sensors. In February it will be announced whether the robotics club will actually bring the latest iCub to the UT. The robot costs a quarter of a million Euros and NWO (Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research) will reimburse 75% of the costs. Then the TNO (Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research) and the universities of Groningen, Nijmegen, Delft and Eindhoven can also make use of it. Within the UT, the iCub can be deployed in different laboratories thanks to a special transport system.

Robot guide dog

The possibilities are endless, according to Van der Velde. "The new iCub has a skin and fingers that have a much better sense of touch and can feel strength. That makes interaction with humans much more natural. We want to ensure that this robot continues to learn and understands how people function. This research ensures, for example, that robots actually gather knowledge by focusing on certain objects or persons. In areas of application like healthcare and nursing, such robots can play an important role. A good example would be that in ten years' time you see a blind person walking with a robot guide dog."

Nano-neural circuits

A recent line of research that is in line with this profile is the development of electronic circuits that resemble a web of neurons in the human brain. Contacts have already been made to start this research in Twente. In the iCub robot, this can for example be used for the robot's visual perception. This requires a lot of relatively simple operations that must all be performed in parallel. This takes a lot of time and energy in the current systems. With electronic circuits in the form of a web of nerve cells this is much easier.

"These connections are only possible at the nanoscale, that is to say the scale at which the material is only a few atoms thick. In combination with the iCub robot, it can be investigated how the experiences of the robot are recorded in such materials and how the robot is controlled by nano-neural circuitry. The bottleneck of the existing technical systems is often the energy consumption and the size. The limits of Moore's Law, the proposition that the number of transistors in a circuit doubles every two years through technological advances, are reached. In this area we are therefore also on the verge of many new applications."

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Business The UKs spectrum conundrum

2013/09/27

Simon-Saunders Professor Simon Saunders of Real Wireless will chair the the working group on Spectrum Applications and Demand within the UK Spectrum Forum set up by Ed Vaizey, UK Minister for Culture, Communications and Creative Industries.

The Forum is to consider the relationship between TV and cellular, the needs of government, military and emergency services, developments in Internet of Things (IoT) and 5G mobile devices amongst others.

Real Wireless forecasts a need for extra allocations of 200-300 MHz of licensed spectrum for mobile applications and 350 MHz of spectrum for Wi-Fi applications by 2020 to meet even a median forecast of growing demand.

This has to be achieved without compromising on the needs of other sectors such as transportation, emergency service and many others.

“We have seen from the difficulties of digital switchover or the debate on the balance of licensed and licence-exempt spectrum that these decisions are not easy, and as we consider the demands of emergency services and military then they become even harder,” says Saunders, “yet if the UK is to progress with 5G or to seize the opportunities presented by M2M and IoT then the need for a spectrum strategy that reconciles these different desires is critical.”

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A step up in wavelength to reduce size of short-distance communication systems

Millimeter waves are a type of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths between 0.1 and 10 millimeters long. Because they are susceptible to absorption by water in the atmosphere, they travel short distances only. Despite this limitation, their short wavelength makes them a useful technology for small-distance applications. Examples include short-range, secure wireless communication and automotive-radar technology, which lets self-driving cars sense their environment.

Electronic components that can manipulate millimeter waves are vital for realizing this potential in commercial applications. Specifically, it is important to change the wavelength of such waves from, for example, one that is optimal for sending information across short distances to one that is more easily processed electronically.

Rui Li and co‐workers at the A*STAR Institute of Microelectronics, Singapore, have designed and fabricated an electronic module that can convert a millimeter wave from one wavelength to another. The device, called a subharmonic passive mixer, mixes an incoming millimeter wave that has a wavelength of 2.2 millimeters with a local source of 4.3-millimeter waves to generate a 1.1-millimeter signal. A signal of this wavelength means that the device operates at a frequency of 273 gigahertz; that is, 273 billion oscillations per second. Operation at such a high frequency allows a large number of potential transmission channels.

Importantly, the researchers' device is based on a technology called 'system-on-package', where the components are attached to a package. "It is the first time that [an on-package] converter has operated at such a high frequency," says Li. In contrast, conventional electronic devices, such as laptops and phones, are miniaturized by combining hundreds of electrical devices on a silicon chip. This approach becomes problematic when dealing with electronic components that operate at radiofrequencies. The low electrical resistivity of silicon results in an energy loss that degrades the overall system performance. The manufacturing cost is also high because the components occupy a large area.

The device developed by Li and her co-workers comprised three stacked thin films of metal, and the choice of material to separate these layers was crucial to it's efficient operation. The researchers used benzocyclobutene -- a polymer that, unlike silicon, is known to have good electrical performance, even in the millimeter-wave region. Thorough electrical testing confirmed the high-performance of their design.

"We are currently in the process of designing and implementing numerous similar types of millimeter-wave passive components in various types of package," says Li. "We hope this will reduce the chip area as compared to 'on-chip'-based approaches."

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