Electronic News

2013-08-31

Researchers a step closer to finding cosmic ray origins

Cosmic rays can damage electronics on Earth, as well as human DNA, putting astronauts in space especially at risk.

The research, which draws on data collected by IceTop, the IceCube Observatory's surface array of detectors, is published online in Physical Review D, a leading journal in elementary particle physics.

University of Delaware physicist Bakhtiyar Ruzybayev is the study's corresponding author. UD scientists were the lead group for the construction of IceTop with support from the National Science Foundation and coordination by the project office at the University of Wisconsin, Madison.

The more scientists learn about the energy spectrum and chemical composition of cosmic rays, the closer humanity will come to uncovering where these energetic particles originate.

Cosmic rays are known to reach energies above 100 billion giga-electron volts (1011 GeV). The data reported in this latest paper cover the energy range from 1.6 times 106 GeV to 109 GeV.

Researchers are particularly interested in identifying cosmic rays in this interval because the transition from cosmic rays produced in the Milky Way Galaxy to "extragalactic" cosmic rays, produced outside our galaxy, is expected to occur in this energy range.

Exploding stars called supernovae are among the sources of cosmic rays here in the Milky Way, while distant objects such as collapsing massive stars and active galactic nuclei far from the Milky Way are believed to produce the highest energy particles in nature.

As Ruzybayev points out, the cosmic-ray energy spectrum does not follow a simple power law between the "knee" around 4 PeV (peta-electron volts) and the "ankle" around 4 EeV (exa-electron volts), as previously thought, but exhibits features like hardening around 20 PeV and steepening around 130 PeV.

"The spectrum steepens at the 'knee,' which is generally interpreted as the beginning of the end of the galactic population. Below the knee, cosmic rays are galactic in origin, while above that energy, particles from more distant regions in our universe become more and more likely," Ruzybayev explained. "These measurements provide new constraints that must be satisfied by any models that try to explain the acceleration and propagation of cosmic rays."

IceTop consists of 81 stations in its final configuration, covering an area of one square kilometer on the South Pole surface above the detectors of IceCube, which are buried over a mile deep in the ice. The analysis presented in this article was performed using data taken from June 2010 to May 2011, when the array consisted of only 73 stations.

The IceCube collaboration includes nearly 250 people from 39 research institutions in 11 countries, including the University of Delaware.

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LED Lighting Proved: Why LED efficiency drops at high current

2013/08/30

04sep13Rensselaer Researchers at the US Rensselaer Polytechnic have proven a link between LED efficiency drop at high current and carrier mobility. Better lighting LEDs could result.

“Efficiency droop, first reported in 1999, has been a key obstacle in the development of LED lighting for situations, like household lighting, that call for economical sources of versatile and bright light,” said the university.

Published in Applied Physics Letters, the work shows that at high current an electric field develops within the p-type region of the diode allowing electrons to escape the active region where they would otherwise re-combine with holes to emit photons – a mechanism previously proposed, but not proven, said Rensselaer.

“We measure excellent correlation between the onset of field build-up and the onset of droop. This is clear evidence that the mechanism is electron leakage, and we can describe it quantitatively,” said Rensselaer researcher David Meyaard. “For example, in one result reported in the paper, we show the onset of high injection and the onset of droop and you can see that they are very nicely correlated. And that was just not possible in the past because there was really no theoretical model that described how electron leakage really works.”

“If the holes and the electrons had similar properties, there is a symmetry; both would meet in the middle, where the quantum well is, and there they recombine,” said Professor Fred Schubert. “What we have instead is a material system where the electrons are much more mobile than the holes. And because they are very mobile, they diffuse more easily, they also react more easily to an electric field. Because of that asymmetry, or disparity, we have a propensity of the electrons to shoot over and to be extracted from the quantum well. And so they don’t meet the hole in the active region and so they don’t emit light.”

Based on the theoretical model, Meyaard and Schubert will look for LED structures that reduce the issue.

The paper is ‘Identifying the cause of the efficiency droop in GaInN light-emitting diodes by correlating the onset of high injection with the onset of the efficiency droop.’

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2013-08-30

Hydrogen fuel from sunlight: Researchers make unique semiconductor/catalyst construct

"We've developed a method by which molecular hydrogen-producing catalysts can be interfaced with a semiconductor that absorbs visible light," says Gary Moore, a chemist with Berkeley Lab's Physical Biosciences Division and principal investigator for JCAP. "Our experimental results indicate that the catalyst and the light-absorber are interfaced structurally as well as functionally."

Moore is the corresponding author, along with Junko Yano and Ian Sharp, who also hold joint appointments with Berkeley Lab and JCAP, of a paper describing this research in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS). The article is titled "Photofunctional Construct That Interfaces Molecular Cobalt-Based Catalysts for H₂ Production to a Visible-Light-Absorbing Semiconductor." Co-authors are Alexandra Krawicz, Jinhui Yang and Eitan Anzenberg.

Earth receives more energy in one hour's worth of sunlight than all of humanity uses in an entire year. Through the process of photosynthesis, green plants harness solar energy to split molecules of water into oxygen, hydrogen ions (protons) and free electrons. The oxygen is released as waste and the protons and electrons are used to convert carbon dioxide into the carbohydrate sugars that plants use for energy. Scientists aim to mimic the concept but improve upon the actual process.

JCAP, which has a northern branch in Berkeley and a southern branch on the campus of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), was established in 2010 by DOE as an Energy Innovation Hub. Operated as a partnership between Caltech and Berkeley Lab, JCAP is the largest research program in the United States dedicated to developing an artificial solar-fuel technology. While artificial photosynthesis can be used to generate electricity, fuels can be a more effective means of storing and transporting energy. The goal is an artificial photosynthesis system that's at least 10 times more efficient than natural photosynthesis.

To this end, once photoanodes have used solar energy to split water molecules, JCAP scientists need high performance semiconductor photocathodes that can use solar energy to catalyze fuel production. In previous efforts to produce hydrogen fuel, catalysts have been immobilized on non-photoactive substrates. This approach requires the application of an external electrical potential to generate hydrogen. Moore and his colleagues have combined these steps into a single material.

"In coupling the absorption of visible light with the production of hydrogen in one material, we can generate a fuel simply by illuminating our photocathode," Moore says. "No external electrochemical forward biasing is required."

The new JCAP photocathode construct consists of the semiconductor gallium phosphide and a molecular cobalt-containing hydrogen production catalyst from the cobaloxime class of compounds. As an absorber of visible light, gallium phosphide can make use of a greater number of available solar photons than semiconductors that absorb ultraviolet light, which means it is capable of producing significantly higher photocurrents and rates of fuel production. However, gallium phosphide can be notoriously unstable during photoelectrochemical operations.

Moore and his colleagues found that coating the surface of gallium phosphide with a film of the polymer vinylpyridine alleviates the instability problem, and if the vinylpyridine is then chemically treated with the cobaloxime catalyst, hydrogen production is significantly boosted.

"The modular aspect of our method allows independent modification of the light-absorber, linking material and catalyst, which means it can be adapted for use with other catalysts tethered over structured photocathodes as new materials and discoveries emerge," Moore says. "This could allow us, for example, to replace the precious metal catalysts currently used in many solar-fuel generator prototypes with catalysts made from earth-abundant elements."

Despite its promising electronic properties, gallium phosphide features a mid-sized optical band gap which ultimately limits the total fraction of solar photons available for absorption. Moore and his colleagues are now investigating semiconductors that cover a broader range of the solar spectrum, and catalysts that operate faster at lower electrical potentials. They also plan to investigate molecular catalysts for carbon dioxide reduction.

"We look forward to adapting our method to incorporate materials with improved properties for converting sunlight to fuel," Moore says. "We believe our method provides researchers at JCAP and elsewhere with an important tool for developing integrated photocathode materials that can be used in future solar-fuel generators as well as other technologies capable of reducing net carbon dioxide emissions."

This research was funded by the DOE Office of Science.

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New understanding of formation of cilia: Cilia provide mobility to cells, and defects are implicated in many disease

Aug. 30, 2013 — Tiny hair-like structures (cilia) are found on the surface of most cells. Cilia are responsible for the locomotion of cells (e.g. sperm cells), they process external signals and coordinate the correct arrangement of the inner organs during the development of an organism. For proper assembly and function of cilia, they need to be supplied with the appropriate building blocks.

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Scientists at the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry (MPIB) in Martinsried near Munich, Germany, now identified the mechanism of how Tubulin, the main building block of cilia, is transported within the cilium. "Defects in cilia cause numerous diseases that affect millions of people worldwide," says Sagar Bhogaraju, scientist at the MPI of Biochemistry.

The results now published in the journal Science could help to understand and potentially prevent these diseases.

Although cilia fulfill various tasks, they all have a similar structure: They are only five to ten micrometers (0.0005 to 0.001 centimeters) long and are located on the surface of eukaryotic cells. About 600 different ciliary proteins are synthesized inside the cell and then transported into the cilium. Disruption of this transport system, which scientists call intraflagellar transport (IFT), can lead to errors during the assembly of the cilia and thus cause diseases resulting in mental and physical symptoms. Mistakes in ciliary function can for example cause a "situs inversus," a condition where the left/right arrangement of the inner organs in the body is reversed.

Even though the importance of the intraflagellar transport (IFT) and the cilium to human health has been known for a long time, a structural and mechanistic understanding of IFT has been missing so far. Scientists from the research group "Intraflagellar Transport" headed by Esben Lorentzen now succeeded in identifying the transport mechanism of the key protein Tubulin. It is the most abundant protein in the cilium and forms its backbone. "We found that the two proteins IFT74 and IFT81 work together to form a tubulin-binding module," says Sagar Bhogaraju. When the researchers disturbed the binding of IFT74 and -81 to tubulin in human cells, it had severe impact on the formation of the cilia. "Our results provide the first glimpse into the assembly of the cilium at the molecular level," says the biochemist.

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General Future Horizons IEF 2013 in Dublin Oct 2-4.

2013/08/30

The Future Horizons 2013 International Executive Forum opens in Dublin on October 2nd. Speakers include Ajit Manocha, CEO of Globalfoundries and Michael LeGoff, CEO of Plessey Semiconductors.

Jacques Noels is also there – the former CEO of the Thomson half of the SGS-Thomson merger, now ST.

Jack Harding, CEO of eSilicon, whose appearances are always ebullient and entertaining is presenting, and so is the accomplished and challenging speaker Wally Rhines, CEO of Mentor.

Other speakers are senior executives from TSMC, Imec, Verisilicon, IQE and a number of other compsnies.

This year’s Future Horizons International Executive Forum is on October 2-4.

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Communications, General Broadcom uses Wi-Fi Direct to link wearable electronics to the cloud

2013/08/30

iwiced Broadcom says companies developing wearable electronic systems will find it easier to link to the cloud via smart mobile devices with the integration of a device-to-device Wi-Fi interface into its WICED embedded wireless platform.

The company has integrated the Wi-Fi Direct point-to-point interface into its WICED platform. This allows a consumer to directly connect two Wi-Fi devices together without the need for an access point or computer.

Broadcom said its WICED platform is being used in blood pressure monitors, glucometers, smart watches and fitness monitors.

It believes support for Wi-Fi Direct, which does not need a Wi-Fi access point or computer, will bee used in the development of smart clothing and other wearable sensors.

For example, Bluetooth Smart and Wi-Fi links allows for data to be collected from wearable devices and transferred to a smartphone or into the cloud in low power systems.

“OEMs creating wearable products require interoperable technology that will allow these new devices to connect with smartphones and tablets available today,” said Joshua Flood, Senior Analyst, ABI Research.

For Bluetooth Smart this already exists and the GATT, Generic Attribute Profile, simplies the development of applications allowing them to run easily on different platfiorms such as iOS, Android and Windows 8.

Wi-Fi is now following a similar route.

Related blogs
What is… a GATT Service?
CSR launches smart chip, as Google’s Android supports Bluetooth

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Business Server CPU from Imagination next year

2013/08/30

Imagination intends to bring out a CPU for servers next year. The chip will be based on the MIPS architecture and will be aimed at low power hyperscale servers which are increasingly being required by big server farm operators like Google, Facebook and Microsoft.

Imagination bought MIPS for $100 million last year. “We didn’t acquire MIPS for the hell of it,” says Sir Hossein Yassaie, Imagination’s CEO, “the intent with MIPS is to cover all the markets where a CPU is relevant.”

Yassaie is preparing for a long-term play in servers. It was a seven year gestation for ARM from planning a server strategy to getting some revenues from server chips. “For us to be a significant player it will take several years,” says Yassaie.

For one thing, he’s got to find manufacturers willing to build Imagination CPUs into server ICs in a market dominated by x86.

But, post MIPS, Yassaie Is setting his sights high. “We are aiming to have 25 per cent market share of the CPU IP market,” says Yassaie.

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Business Chips looking good

2013/08/30

The worldwide semiconductor market is back to a healthy level of growth, says Bill Jewell at Semiconductor Intelligence.

“WSTS data shows the 2Q 2013 global semiconductor market was up 6.0% from 1Q 2013 – the strongest quarter-to-quarter growth since 6.6% growth in 2Q 2011″ says Jewell, “recent forecasts for 2013 market growth range from a conservative 2.1% from WSTS to an optimistic “up to 10%” from Objective Analysis. We at Semiconductor Intelligence are holding to our May number of 6.0% growth.”

Forecasts for 2014 have a wide range – from IDC’s 2.9% (the only forecaster to show slower growth in 2014 than in 2013) to “over 20%” from Objective Analysis.

Semiconductor Intelligence has increased its forecast for 2014 to 15% from its May forecast of 12%.

The various % growth forecasts for 2013 and 2014 are:

WSTS. 2 and 5
Objective Analysis. 10 and 20
IHS 4.7 and 7
Future Horizons. 6.9 and 10
IDC. 6.9 and 2.9
Mike Cowan. 3.1 and 5.6
Semi Intelligence. 6 and 15

The average for the 2014 forecasts shown is 9.4%, which is a strong growth rate for the semiconductor market considering the compound annual growth rate (CAGR) from the prior cycle peak in 2004 to the current cycle peak in 2010 was 5.8%.

How certain is the outlook for 2013? To reach 6% growth for the year, 3Q 2013 and 4Q 2013 quarter-to-quarter growth would need to average 6.4%. This growth rate is reasonable based on the 3Q 2013 versus 2Q 2013 revenue growth guidance from major semiconductor companies.

For Q3 growth over Q2, Intel’s mid-point guidance is 5%, Qualcomm is flat, TI 6%, ST is flat, Broadcom 4%, Renesas 5%, Infineon 3% and AMD 22%.

The midpoint of 3Q 2013 revenue guidance for most of the companies above is in the range of 3% to 6%.

AMD projects 22% growth due to new products and design wins.

Qualcomm expects flat revenue quarter-to-quarter based on the timing of key new product releases.

ST’s outlook for a flat 3Q is blamed on its struggling wireless business. Excluding wireless, ST expects 3.5% growth.

The upper end of guidance is in the upper single digit or double digit range for most of the companies.

Samsung did not provide specific revenue guidance but expects 3Q demand growth for both DRAM and flash in its memory business and strong demand growth for image sensors in its LSI business.

The weighted average midpoint 3Q 2013 revenue growth for the above companies is 4.2% versus 3.7% growth in 2Q 2013.

This compares to WSTS’ 6.0% 2Q 2013 market growth. So smaller semiconductor companies generally are experiencing stronger growth than the major companies listed above.

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Business PC prospects worsen

2013/08/30

For the PC industry, prospects get worse and worse. IDC cut its 2013 market figure to minus 9.7%.

IDC has also slightly reduced its forecast for the tablet market as people turn to big-screen smartphones or phablets.

Even so, tablets are still expected to grow 58% this year.

For PCs, IDC has been reducing its its expectations as the year has gone on. In March it was forecasting a 1.3% drop; in May it was forecasting a 7.8% drop; now its forecast is 9.7%.

At this rate it’s going to look pretty horrible for Intel, Microsoft, HP, Nvidia, Dell, AMD et al by Christmas-time.

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Bacteria supplemented their diet to clean up after Deep Water Horizon oil

Aug. 29, 2013 — Bacteria living in the Gulf of Mexico beaches were able to 'eat up' the contamination from the Deep Water Horizon oil spill by supplementing their diet with nitrogen, delegates at the Goldschmidt conference will be told today, Friday 30th August.

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Professor Joel Kostka will tell geochemists gathered in Florence for the conference that detailed genetic analysis showed some of the bacteria thrived on a diet of oil because they were able to fix nitrogen from the air. The research -- the first to use next generation sequencing technologies to dig into the detail of how the native beach microbes are metabolising the oil over time -- could open the door to much more sophisticated clean up techniques.

"Oil is a natural product, made of decayed plants and animals, and so is similar to the normal food sources for these bacteria." explains Professor Kostka, a microbiologist from Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta. "But because oil is low in nutrients such as nitrogen, this can limit how fast the bacteria grow and how quickly they are able to break down the oil. Our analysis showed that some bacteria are able to solve this problem themselves -- by getting their own nitrogen from the air."

Professor Kostka worked with Professor Markus Huettel, a biogeochemist from Florida State University, to take more than 500 samples over two years from Pensacola beach in the Gulf of Mexico, starting when the Deep Water Horizon oil slick first came ashore in June 2010. By analysing every gene of every bacteria in the sample, they were able to see which bacteria were present and how they responded as the conditions on the beach changed.The researchers looked at the prevalence of genes which encode for different types of activity -- such as nitrogen fixing or phosphorus uptake -- to identify exactly how the bacteria were degrading the oil.

"By understanding how the oil is degraded by microbes, which microbes do the work, and the impact of the surrounding environmental conditions, we can develop ways to intervene to support the natural clean-up process," says Professor Kostka. "However, we need to do this in a very measured and targeted way, to avoid long-term, unintended damage to the ecosystem. For example, in the past, nitrogen fertiliser has been sprayed onto contaminated beaches to speed up the work of the bacteria. Our analysis shows that, where bacteria can get this nitrogen naturally, such drastic intervention may not be necessary."

The genetic analysis carried out by Professor Kostka and his colleague Konstantinos Konstantinidis at Georgia Tech can show exactly how the oil-degrading bacteria are working at each part of an affected coastline, making it possible to identify which beaches are most effective at self-cleaning and target mitigation efforts -- such as offshore booms -- at the most vulnerable areas.But not all the bacteria thrived on a diet of oil. Professor Kostka's research showed that some bacteria which play an important role in the ecosystem of the beaches experienced a sharp decline following the contamination in June 2010.

"There's a tendency to focus on the short-term, visible effects of an oil spill on the beach and assume that once the beach looks 'clean' then all is back to normal," he says. "Our analysis shows some of the invisible impact in the loss of these important microbes. We need to be aware of the long-term chronic damage both a spill -- and in some cases our attempts to deal with it -- can cause."

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Spider venom reveals new secret: Once injected into a bite wound, venom of brown recluse spider causes unexpected reaction

University of Arizona researchers led a team that has discovered that venom of spiders in the genus Loxosceles, which contains about 100 spider species including the brown recluse, produces a different chemical product in the human body than scientists believed.

The finding has implications for understanding how these spider bites affect humans and for the development of possible treatments for the bites.

One of few common spiders whose bites can have a seriously harmful effect on humans, the brown recluse has venom that contains a rare protein that can cause a blackened lesion at the site of a bite, or a much less common, but more dangerous, systemic reaction in humans.

"This is not a protein that is usually found in the venom of poisonous animals," said Matthew Cordes, an associate professor in the UA's department of chemistry and biochemistry and member of the UA BIO5 Institute who led the study, published today in the journal PLOS ONE.

The protein, once injected into a bite wound, attacks phospholipid molecules that are the major component of cell membranes. The protein acts to cleave off the head portion of the lipids, leaving behind, scientists long have assumed, a simple, linear, headless lipid molecule.

The research team has discovered that in the test tube, the venom protein causes lipids to bend into a ring structure upon the loss of the head portion, generating a cyclical chemical product that is very different than the linear molecule it was assumed to produce.

"The very first step of this whole process that leads to skin and tissue damage or systemic effects is not what we all thought it was," Cordes said.

The lipid knocks off its own head by making a ring within itself, prompted by the protein from the spider venom, Cordes explained. "Part of the outcome of the reaction, the release of the head group, is the same. So initially scientists believed that this was all that was happening, then that became established in the literature."

The research team includes Cordes; Vahe Bandarian, an associate professor also in the UA's department of chemistry and biochemistry; and Greta Binford, an associate professor of biology at Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Ore. who, completed her doctorate and a postdoc at the UA.

Cordes, Bandarian and Daniel Lajoie, a PhD candidate in Cordes's lab, tested venom from three species of brown recluse spiders from North and South America. Binford, an arachnologist who has traveled the world in search of the eight-legged creatures, collected the spiders, isolated their DNA and milked their venom, which was then frozen and shipped to the UA labs for analysis.

"We didn't find what we thought we were going to find," Cordes added. "We found something more interesting."

The cyclical shape of the headless molecule means that it has different chemical properties than the linear headless lipid believed to be generated by the protein, Cordes explained. The biological effects of either molecule in human membranes or insects aren't completely known, he said, but they are likely to be very different.

"We think it's something about that ring product generated by this protein that activates the immune system," Binford said.

"The properties of this cyclic molecule aren't well-known yet, but knowing that it's being produced by toxins in venoms might heighten interest," Cordes said. "Knowing how the protein is actually working and making this cyclic molecule could also lead to better insights on how to inhibit that protein."

For those who do have a reaction to the venom, the most common response is inflammation that after one to two days can develop into a dark lesion surrounding the bite site. The blackening, or necrosis, of the skin is dead skin cells, evidence of the immune system's efforts to prevent spread of the toxin by preventing blood flow to the affected area.

"Our bodies are basically committing tissue suicide," Binford said. "That can be very minor to pretty major, like losing a big chunk of skin. The only treatment in that case is usually to have a skin graft done by a plastic surgeon."

About once every five years, Binford said, someone develops a serious systemic reaction to a brown recluse bite, which can be fatal.

"If it goes systemic, then it can cause destruction of blood cells and various other effects that can in extreme cases lead to death by kidney failure or renal failure," Cordes said.

However, it is believed that the vast majority of brown recluse bites are so minor that they go unnoticed by those who were bitten.

It's not known what determines the type or severity of reaction a person is likely to get when bitten by a brown recluse, Cordes said, "but what is known is that this protein is the main cause of it."

"I think if we know how the toxin works, it opens a new door to understanding how the syndrome is initiated as well as the possibility of blocking that process."

"The discovery of this product may be crucial in understanding what exactly is going on in the human reaction," Binford said.

For the spider biologists and chemists, the work has just begun.

"These spiders have been around with this toxin for over 120 million years," Binford said. "I want to understand the full set of variation present in a single spider and across the entire genus and the activity of this compound."

"People think about the brown recluse with fear," she added. "When I think about a brown recluse or any other spider, I think about how a single spider can have 1,000 chemicals in its venom and there are about 44,000 species, so tens of millions of unique compounds in spider venom that we're in the process of discovering. We have a lot to learn about how these venom toxins work and potential for understanding new chemistry and developing new drugs or treatments."

Understanding how brown recluse venom produces harmful effects in humans is particularly relevant in Arizona, a hotbed for these spiders, Cordes said: "There are more variant species of Loxosceles here than anywhere else in the United States."

The UA-led study of brown recluse venom was supported initially by a pilot project award from the UA BIO5 Institute. Binford's venom collections were supported by a National Science Foundation Career Award.

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